Introduction
I’m a road warrior. That’s what the people at my job call those of us who spend all of our time traveling to work on client projects. We have to learn something on the fly then use it to train our clients with few or no performance support tools.
At least, that’s how it used to be.
In 1999-2000, I was stuck in Anchorage, AK for ten months with nothing to do but sit in my hotel room during the long, dark winter evenings. So I started writing down what I had learned, shared copies with fellow road warriors, and gave copies to clients. They were surprisingly grateful. Then the company hired an instructional designer who standardized my documentation and created official training material. I’d never heard of an instructional designer but suddenly I knew I wanted to be one.
In 2009 I finally got off the road, transferred to the Education Department, and was bestowed with the Instructional Design Specialist title. But other than write training manuals, what does an I.D. do?
I’ve been working in adult education and training for the past 15 years. I began as a software trainer, spent some time implementing software projects, and now work as an I.D. at the same software company. I decided to go through the educational technology program so that I could better understand the theories behind the job in order to improve the work I do.
At least, that’s how it used to be.
In 1999-2000, I was stuck in Anchorage, AK for ten months with nothing to do but sit in my hotel room during the long, dark winter evenings. So I started writing down what I had learned, shared copies with fellow road warriors, and gave copies to clients. They were surprisingly grateful. Then the company hired an instructional designer who standardized my documentation and created official training material. I’d never heard of an instructional designer but suddenly I knew I wanted to be one.
In 2009 I finally got off the road, transferred to the Education Department, and was bestowed with the Instructional Design Specialist title. But other than write training manuals, what does an I.D. do?
I’ve been working in adult education and training for the past 15 years. I began as a software trainer, spent some time implementing software projects, and now work as an I.D. at the same software company. I decided to go through the educational technology program so that I could better understand the theories behind the job in order to improve the work I do.
My grandfather worked for SDSU, my parents graduated from SDSU, two of my siblings currently attend SDSU, and I got my teaching credential there—going back to SDSU for a masters in Educational Technology seemed like a natural choice. Apparently, I’m an Aztec for Life.
This paper describes my experiences in the Educational Technology (Edtec) program, the projects I worked on that cut across the Edtec competency standards [see endnotes], and how my discoveries have informed my professional practices.
This paper describes my experiences in the Educational Technology (Edtec) program, the projects I worked on that cut across the Edtec competency standards [see endnotes], and how my discoveries have informed my professional practices.
2500 years ago Confucius summed up adult learning theory for us: "What I hear, I forget. What I say, I remember. What I do, I understand.” I’ve come to learn that this is the basis of the work I do as an I.D.
From my bachelor’s in psychology, I knew all about the primary learning theories, like Skinner’s operant conditioning and Piaget’s stages of development, but they weren’t sufficient. Behaviorism only seemed helpful for behavior management in the classroom and Piaget focused on children. It wasn’t until Edtec introduced Knowles’ andragogy to me that I saw a corporate training application [i]:
…as individuals mature:
1) their self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward being a self-directed human being;
2) they accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasingly rich resource for learning;
3) their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of their social roles; and
4) their time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application,
and accordingly, their orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of performance- centeredness (p.44-45).
I now design courses and training guides that a) explain the objectives and benefits of what is being taught, b) are task-oriented, c) take advantage of the learner’s existing knowledge [ii], and d) are problem-based, allowing learners to discover answers for themselves [iii]. I first got to practice these strategies in many of my favorite Edtec projects.
From my bachelor’s in psychology, I knew all about the primary learning theories, like Skinner’s operant conditioning and Piaget’s stages of development, but they weren’t sufficient. Behaviorism only seemed helpful for behavior management in the classroom and Piaget focused on children. It wasn’t until Edtec introduced Knowles’ andragogy to me that I saw a corporate training application [i]:
…as individuals mature:
1) their self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward being a self-directed human being;
2) they accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasingly rich resource for learning;
3) their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of their social roles; and
4) their time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application,
and accordingly, their orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of performance- centeredness (p.44-45).
I now design courses and training guides that a) explain the objectives and benefits of what is being taught, b) are task-oriented, c) take advantage of the learner’s existing knowledge [ii], and d) are problem-based, allowing learners to discover answers for themselves [iii]. I first got to practice these strategies in many of my favorite Edtec projects.
My Four Favorite Projects
Chronologically, the first project on my favorites list was assigned in Edtec 540 by Jim Marshall, PhD. I say this in retrospect; at the time I couldn’t have guessed that I would consider it a favorite. That was a valuable class for me because it gave me all of the I.D. basics including the jargon and vocabulary to communicate with my new coworkers (“So that’s what smile sheets are!”). But it was the performance analysis and job aid project where I first got to put into practice the parts of the ADDIE cycle that we so frequently skip in the corporate world. It was news to me that other people [iv] (besides the I.D.) should be involved in determining [v] the performance gaps [ii] and drivers [vi].
I include job aids in the training programs I develop for work on a regular basis. Although I have often used them in the past, thanks to the Edtec program I now know why and when to use them appropriately. Step-by-step procedures are best delivered in job aids when the
situation meets the criteria Rossett & Schafer recommend in Job Aids & Performance Support (2007):
·When the performance is infrequent
·When the situation is complex, involves many steps, or has multiple attributes
·When the consequences of errors are high
·When performance depends on a large body of information
·When performance is dependent on knowledge, procedures, or approaches that change frequently
·When performance can be improved through employee self-assessment and correction with standards in mind
·When there is high turnover and the task can be codified
·When there is little time or few resources for training and development (p. 29)
I include job aids in the training programs I develop for work on a regular basis. Although I have often used them in the past, thanks to the Edtec program I now know why and when to use them appropriately. Step-by-step procedures are best delivered in job aids when the
situation meets the criteria Rossett & Schafer recommend in Job Aids & Performance Support (2007):
·When the performance is infrequent
·When the situation is complex, involves many steps, or has multiple attributes
·When the consequences of errors are high
·When performance depends on a large body of information
·When performance is dependent on knowledge, procedures, or approaches that change frequently
·When performance can be improved through employee self-assessment and correction with standards in mind
·When there is high turnover and the task can be codified
·When there is little time or few resources for training and development (p. 29)
An Edtec 700 seminar about mobile learning with Bernie Dodge, PhD, was another great experience for me because I knew nothing about mobile learning at the beginning yet felt well-informed by the end. The papers we wrote in groups using Google Docs were eye openers for me. It was the first time I’ve ever experienced an effective and painless collaborative assignment. Normally group projects are difficult to organize. I find them a task of compromise rather than a learning opportunity [vii]. I believe there were two factors contributing to the success of these papers: technology and speed. Google Docs was the technology [viii]—Heather Larson, Paula Ridolfi, Erika Romensko, and I were able to modify the same document simultaneously and could immediately see each other’s contributions. And designing the lesson for speed, creating a sense of urgency, was wise. I feel it was an interesting twist on the rapid prototyping ISD model. Rather than struggling to divvy up the assignment, each of us simply dove in and started working. We were given so many options to investigate that it significantly decreased the chance any of us would be working on the same part. I look forward to using this tool and lesson design in the courses I create for work [ix].
That same year I took Edtec 650 with Bob Hoffman, PhD, who told the class that we would get out of the course what we put into it. He encouraged us to use a new software program for the e-learning assignment so that we could learn a new tool while also learning the theories behind compelling e-learning interactions. Best advice I ever took! Theories are good to know but potential employers are looking for experience using Adobe Captivate®, Articulate®, and other e-learning authoring tools. I’m happy with what I got out of this class. Not only did I get to practice Michael Allen’s suggestions for effective interactions (which are rooted in adult learning theory) but now I can add Captivate [viii] to my resume.
Applying adult learning theory to e-learning is one of the most significant ways I’ve benefited from this master’s program. Currently I am working to convince my employer to allow me to use Michael Allen’s best-practices [i] in my e-learning, such as making sure an e-lesson [x]:
• Requires learner to apply information and skills to meaningful and interesting problems
• Delays judgment, giving learners information needed to determine for themselves if they are performing well or not
• Provides instructive information in response to either learner requests for it or repeated learner errors
• Provides frank and honest assessments, says so if and when learners begin making thoughtless errors (Allen,
table 7.1)
This is an ongoing struggle for me as I’ve discovered how easily I revert back to a default quiz/response test format, despite what I learned from Michael Allen’s book about interactivity [vii].
Surprisingly, Gagné is also relevant to e-learning lessons. I first learned of Gagné when studying for a teaching credential. Although I originally spurned the traditional nine-event lesson plan when developing corporate training, I’ve come to appreciate its role in adult learning. Guided practice is an essential part of Robert Gagné's teaching method of providing practice with feedback (1992), which is what e-learning lessons are so good at. The e-module format allows the computer to collaborate with the user and to correct any mistakes. This is in line with standard adult learning theory—adults learn through doing and as adults learn they want to apply it immediately (Knowles, 2005).
Applying adult learning theory to e-learning is one of the most significant ways I’ve benefited from this master’s program. Currently I am working to convince my employer to allow me to use Michael Allen’s best-practices [i] in my e-learning, such as making sure an e-lesson [x]:
• Requires learner to apply information and skills to meaningful and interesting problems
• Delays judgment, giving learners information needed to determine for themselves if they are performing well or not
• Provides instructive information in response to either learner requests for it or repeated learner errors
• Provides frank and honest assessments, says so if and when learners begin making thoughtless errors (Allen,
table 7.1)
This is an ongoing struggle for me as I’ve discovered how easily I revert back to a default quiz/response test format, despite what I learned from Michael Allen’s book about interactivity [vii].
Surprisingly, Gagné is also relevant to e-learning lessons. I first learned of Gagné when studying for a teaching credential. Although I originally spurned the traditional nine-event lesson plan when developing corporate training, I’ve come to appreciate its role in adult learning. Guided practice is an essential part of Robert Gagné's teaching method of providing practice with feedback (1992), which is what e-learning lessons are so good at. The e-module format allows the computer to collaborate with the user and to correct any mistakes. This is in line with standard adult learning theory—adults learn through doing and as adults learn they want to apply it immediately (Knowles, 2005).
Coming full circle, this year I worked on another analysis and job aid project. In Ed 795 with Marcie Bober-Michel, PhD, I had the opportunity to work with a client, San Diego Zoo Global (SDZG), on a performance and training issue. I teamed up with Aura Lippincott to help SDZG figure out how to get new users up and running on e-learning Captivate projects as quickly as possible. This challenge forced me to reflect upon everything I know about how to design a learning program and it let me appreciate getting back to the basics. I was able to practice what I preach by implementing the theories I hold most important.
Of course we began with the “A” in ADDIE: analysis. Aura and I interviewed [x] the client and a SME extensively to complete the needs, audience, environment, and task analyses [vi]. Then we began a survey of the theories we had learned to find one that best fit the circumstances [iii].
For example, the elaboration theory (a.k.a. zoom theory) informed our decision to start with an overview in order to build context and frame the learning activities. The elaboration theory of instruction posits that if a broad overview is given first then the result will be higher levels of learning and retention. “A person starts with a wide-angle view, which allows one to see the major parts of the picture and the major relationships among those parts…but without any detail. The person then zooms in on a part of the picture” (Reigeluth, 1979).
I believe starting with an overview, or at least a statement of the lesson objectives, is a key component of effective education and training for adults. By providing an overview we hoped to avoid the problem Tom Kuhlmann, noted instructional designer, recently blogged about: “It wasn’t that they didn’t know how to do the work, it was that they weren’t completely aware of how their work fit in the grand scheme of things.” His solution was an overview as well: “We added a few modules that taught them more about the overall production process and how they supported the organization” (November 15, 2011).
We chose to use the video format for the overview based on a survey where our audience expressed a preference for video. Aura took lead on this portion of the project and was very responsive to client feedback [v], making several requested changes.
Meanwhile, I took lead on the job aid. Following the logic of the elaboration theory, after seeing the big picture a person needs to zoom in on the details. One way to do this is through a job aid. As a performance support tool it is an inexpensive alternative to time-consuming training and it provides a “balance [of] structure and freedom when appropriate: forcing required actions without performer discretion or allowing flexibility based on user competence” (Rossett, 2007).
Aura and I delivered several other products to the zoo, including an assessment plan. I only wish we could have seen the implementation and evaluation phases of this project to learn from them.
What stands out for me on this project is that even though Aura and I went to a lot of work to schedule a project plan [ix] and tentative due dates for work on our various deliverables, we didn't end up following it. We worked on all deliverables simultaneously in an organic manner as we received information for the different parts. This worked for us; I feel this is due to the good match between Aura and me [iv]. We are well matched in terms of a sense of urgency, our work ethic, and quality standards. A project plan is of more use with a team that is concerned with division of labor and accountability. However, the planning process still served a purpose; it was useful in ensuring the scope of our project was reasonable.
Conclusion
These days I’m less a road warrior and more a technology warrior. The Edtech program has given me many new resources for my I.D. toolbox and I’m proud to now be able to give those still on the road some decent performance support tools to make their jobs easier.
Of course we began with the “A” in ADDIE: analysis. Aura and I interviewed [x] the client and a SME extensively to complete the needs, audience, environment, and task analyses [vi]. Then we began a survey of the theories we had learned to find one that best fit the circumstances [iii].
For example, the elaboration theory (a.k.a. zoom theory) informed our decision to start with an overview in order to build context and frame the learning activities. The elaboration theory of instruction posits that if a broad overview is given first then the result will be higher levels of learning and retention. “A person starts with a wide-angle view, which allows one to see the major parts of the picture and the major relationships among those parts…but without any detail. The person then zooms in on a part of the picture” (Reigeluth, 1979).
I believe starting with an overview, or at least a statement of the lesson objectives, is a key component of effective education and training for adults. By providing an overview we hoped to avoid the problem Tom Kuhlmann, noted instructional designer, recently blogged about: “It wasn’t that they didn’t know how to do the work, it was that they weren’t completely aware of how their work fit in the grand scheme of things.” His solution was an overview as well: “We added a few modules that taught them more about the overall production process and how they supported the organization” (November 15, 2011).
We chose to use the video format for the overview based on a survey where our audience expressed a preference for video. Aura took lead on this portion of the project and was very responsive to client feedback [v], making several requested changes.
Meanwhile, I took lead on the job aid. Following the logic of the elaboration theory, after seeing the big picture a person needs to zoom in on the details. One way to do this is through a job aid. As a performance support tool it is an inexpensive alternative to time-consuming training and it provides a “balance [of] structure and freedom when appropriate: forcing required actions without performer discretion or allowing flexibility based on user competence” (Rossett, 2007).
Aura and I delivered several other products to the zoo, including an assessment plan. I only wish we could have seen the implementation and evaluation phases of this project to learn from them.
What stands out for me on this project is that even though Aura and I went to a lot of work to schedule a project plan [ix] and tentative due dates for work on our various deliverables, we didn't end up following it. We worked on all deliverables simultaneously in an organic manner as we received information for the different parts. This worked for us; I feel this is due to the good match between Aura and me [iv]. We are well matched in terms of a sense of urgency, our work ethic, and quality standards. A project plan is of more use with a team that is concerned with division of labor and accountability. However, the planning process still served a purpose; it was useful in ensuring the scope of our project was reasonable.
Conclusion
These days I’m less a road warrior and more a technology warrior. The Edtech program has given me many new resources for my I.D. toolbox and I’m proud to now be able to give those still on the road some decent performance support tools to make their jobs easier.
___________________________________
[i] Professional & Career [ii] Cognitive [iii] Principles, Theories, Models [iv] Interpersonal [v] Data-Based Decision-Making | [vi] Systems [vii] Character [viii] Technical [ix] Processes [x] Communication |
Citations
Allen, M. (2003). Michael Allen's guide to e-learning: Building interactive, fun, and effective learning programs for any
company. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley.
Confucius. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved from BrainyQuote.com Website:
http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/c/confucius131984.html
Knowles, M. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. New York: Association Press.
Retrieved from http://www.clickpdf.com/download/o0alu0/andragogy.pdf
Kuhlmann, T. (2011, November 15). “Are you asking these questions to build effective e-learning?” The Rapid E-Learning
Blog. [Web log comment]. Retrieved from http://www.articulate.com/rapid-elearning/are-you-asking-these-questions-to-
build-effective-e-learning/
Reigeluth, C. M. (1979). “In search of a better way to organize instruction: The elaboration theory.” Journal of Instructional
Development, Volume 2, Number 3, 8-15. doi: 10.1007/BF02984374
Rossett, A. & Schafer, L. (2007). Job aids and performance support: Moving from knowledge in the classroom to
knowledge everywhere. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
company. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley.
Confucius. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved from BrainyQuote.com Website:
http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/c/confucius131984.html
Knowles, M. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. New York: Association Press.
Retrieved from http://www.clickpdf.com/download/o0alu0/andragogy.pdf
Kuhlmann, T. (2011, November 15). “Are you asking these questions to build effective e-learning?” The Rapid E-Learning
Blog. [Web log comment]. Retrieved from http://www.articulate.com/rapid-elearning/are-you-asking-these-questions-to-
build-effective-e-learning/
Reigeluth, C. M. (1979). “In search of a better way to organize instruction: The elaboration theory.” Journal of Instructional
Development, Volume 2, Number 3, 8-15. doi: 10.1007/BF02984374
Rossett, A. & Schafer, L. (2007). Job aids and performance support: Moving from knowledge in the classroom to
knowledge everywhere. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
References
Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W.W. (1992). Principles of instructional design (4th ed.). Wadsworth Publishing.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and
human resource development (6th ed.). Amsterdam Boston: Elsevier.
Mager, R. (1997). Goal analysis: How to clarify your goals so you can actually achieve them. Atlanta, GA: Center for
Effective Performance.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and
human resource development (6th ed.). Amsterdam Boston: Elsevier.
Mager, R. (1997). Goal analysis: How to clarify your goals so you can actually achieve them. Atlanta, GA: Center for
Effective Performance.